The Oppressive Legacy of Confucianism: A Feminist and Leftist Critique of Its Historical and Social Impact

Introduction

Confucianism, as a philosophical and socio-political system, has deeply influenced the development of East Asian societies for over two millennia. While it has been praised for promoting social harmony and moral ethics, its long-standing impact has also contributed to the entrenchment of patriarchal, hierarchical, and authoritarian systems. As a feminist and leftist, I argue that Confucianism has perpetuated systems of oppression that undermine gender equality, social justice, and the redistribution of power. This thesis will critically examine how Confucian thought (both classical Confucianism and its neoconfucian revival) has reinforced patriarchal norms, hierarchical structures, and authoritarian governance, thereby stifling progress, freedom, and equality for marginalized communities.

Part 1: The Foundations of Confucianism and Its Gendered Hierarchy

Confucianism, one of the most influential philosophical and ethical systems in East Asia, has shaped not only the culture, but also the social and political structures of several societies over the centuries. At the core of Confucian thought lies a deeply ingrained belief in hierarchical relationships, with emphasis on order, respect, and duty. This framework is not merely abstract; it is translated into real-world societal norms that affect every aspect of life. One of the most insidious aspects of Confucianism, particularly when viewed through a feminist lens, is its approach to gender roles, which is inextricably linked to its broader philosophy of hierarchy.

1.1) The Confucian Vision of Social Order

Confucianism was founded on the teachings of Confucius (Kong Fuzi), who lived in China during the Spring and Autumn Period (551–479 BCE). His philosophy centered on the cultivation of personal virtue, the proper conduct of relationships, and the importance of social harmony. In the Confucian view, the state and society should function much like a family, where everyone knows their place and adheres to their responsibilities. The stability and prosperity of the state depend on the moral integrity of its people and their adherence to these social roles. This hierarchical structure, emphasized by Confucius, extends to all facets of life: political, familial, and social.

At the heart of this system is the concept of filial piety (xiao), the duty to respect and honor one’s parents and ancestors. Filial piety forms the basis of family relationships and serves as the microcosm of the larger social order. It underscores a strict hierarchical structure where the younger generation, particularly children, are expected to obey the older generation. This principle is not limited to the family but extends to the broader social and political systems, where rulers, teachers, and other authority figures are to be respected unconditionally by their subordinates.

The idea of hierarchical relationships is extended and codified in Confucian ethics, where each individual’s duty is clearly defined by their role in society. This is where the philosophy begins to intersect with ideas about gender: the roles assigned to men and women, though central to the family structure, reflect broader social values that ultimately limit women’s agency, autonomy, and equality.

1.2) Gender in Confucianism: A Rigid Binary

In Confucian thought, gender is a central feature of the social hierarchy, and its delineation is rigid. Women and men are assigned distinct, often conflicting, roles that are rooted in both ethical and biological distinctions. Confucianism teaches that the proper roles for men and women are not merely a matter of choice or personal preference, but a matter of cosmic order, in which the natural world reflects the moral order of society.

One of the core texts that shapes this division is the Liji (The Book of Rites), which provides detailed prescriptions for behavior and duties in different familial and social contexts. Women’s roles, according to Confucian teachings, are primarily centered around the domestic sphere, where they are expected to fulfill their duties as wives, mothers, and daughters. Women are considered to be subordinate to their fathers, husbands, and sons, with their worth being determined largely by their ability to embody virtues such as chastity, obedience, and familial devotion. This rigid division between public and private life is one of the defining features of Confucian gender roles.

The Confucian view of women’s place within society has far-reaching consequences. Women were often restricted from participating in public life, including education and political affairs. This confinement to the domestic sphere meant that women had limited opportunities to develop their intellectual, political, or economic power. In essence, the role of women was to support and uphold the male-dominated family structure, which could be seen as a mirror to the state’s political order.

1.3) The Patriarchal Family: The Foundation of Confucian Social Order

In Confucian thought, the family is the most important unit of society. It is the building block from which social harmony and stability emerge. At the center of the Confucian family is the father, who is the head of the household. The father’s authority is absolute, and his children (especially sons) are expected to show unwavering respect and obedience. The importance of the father is symbolized through the notion of filial piety: the unquestioned loyalty and reverence children owe to their parents, particularly the father.

This familial hierarchy is built on a fundamentally patriarchal foundation. The father is responsible for maintaining the family’s moral integrity and social standing, and he is the one who carries forward the family’s legacy. Women, on the other hand, are seen as caretakers of the home and family, responsible for upholding the moral integrity of the household through their roles as wives and mothers. Women’s primary duty, according to Confucian doctrine, is to bear sons, thus ensuring the continuation of the family line. Women were often discouraged from seeking education or career advancement, as their primary duty was believed to lie in the home, where they could support their husbands and nurture their children.

The Confucian ideal of the family and its gendered hierarchy directly contributes to the subordination of women in society. Women were expected to remain silent, humble, and obedient, and their personal desires or ambitions were considered secondary to their familial duties. They were also expected to be chaste and loyal to their husbands, and their worth was often determined by their ability to bear male heirs. This idealized view of womanhood placed an immense amount of pressure on women to fulfill the expectations of their family and society, and any deviation from this role was often met with social stigma or punishment.

1.4) The Moral Hierarchy: Women and the Role of Virtue

Confucianism’s rigid expectations of women are further compounded by its moral philosophy. Confucius’s emphasis on the cultivation of virtue and moral integrity applies to both men and women, but the standards of virtue differ significantly between the genders. For men, virtue is linked to the ability to lead and govern, to take on responsibility, and to uphold the moral order in society. For women, however, virtue is tied to submission, chastity, and modesty. The Confucian ideal woman is one who embodies the virtues of humility, devotion, and loyalty, often at the cost of her own agency and desires.

The Confucian concept of nian (the woman’s role in maintaining family respect and virtue) specifically placed a high moral burden on women to maintain their purity and manage the moral tone of the household. A woman’s conduct, her ability to maintain sexual purity, and her submission to male authority were all central to her value in Confucian society. Any deviation from these ideals (whether through infidelity, disobedience, or failure to produce male heirs) was considered a moral failing that could tarnish the reputation of the entire family.

1.5) Feminist Critique of Confucian Gender Norms

From a feminist perspective, Confucianism’s reinforcement of gendered hierarchy and the relegation of women to the private, domestic sphere represent a fundamental violation of women’s rights to autonomy, freedom, and equality. The Confucian ideal of womanhood restricts women’s potential by confining them to a rigid set of expectations that serve to maintain patriarchal power structures. Women are seen as secondary to men, both in the family and in society at large. The denial of women’s full participation in public life and their exclusion from education and political discourse reflect a broader societal view that women are inherently inferior to men.

This hierarchical view of gender has had long-lasting consequences, not only within Confucian-influenced societies but also globally. The impact of Confucianism on women’s rights and roles can be seen in the historical marginalization of women in China, Korea, Japan, and other Confucian cultures, where women’s opportunities for social, economic, and political advancement have been systematically restricted. The emphasis on male authority and the relegation of women to subordinate roles has contributed to the persistence of gender inequality and the lack of agency afforded to women.

1.6) Conclusion

The Confucian vision of social order, with its rigid gender roles and hierarchical relationships, has shaped the lives of countless women throughout history. By placing women in a subservient position within the family and society, Confucianism has reinforced patriarchal power structures that have stifled women’s rights, agency, and freedom. For feminists, this gendered hierarchy represents a critical point of critique, as it perpetuates systems of oppression that deny women the equality and autonomy they deserve. As we continue to strive for a more just and egalitarian world, it is essential to confront the legacy of Confucianism and its impact on gender relations, and to challenge the hierarchical systems that limit the potential of women and marginalized groups.

Part 2: Confucian Hierarchy and Its Role in Authoritarianism

One of the central tenets of Confucianism is the concept of hierarchical relationships, which permeates both family and society. This hierarchical vision extends beyond personal relationships to the broader governance of society. Confucius’s teachings emphasize the importance of respecting authority, social order, and the inherent roles that individuals occupy in the larger structure of life. While this structure is presented as a means of maintaining harmony and stability, it also has profound implications for the distribution of power. The emphasis on social hierarchy and loyalty to authority not only creates a rigid class system but also lays the foundation for authoritarian political structures. For feminists and leftists, this hierarchical and authoritarian nature of Confucianism represents a central point of critique, as it reinforces oppressive systems that limit individual autonomy and entrench power in the hands of a few.

2.1) The Core of Confucian Hierarchy: Filial Piety and Social Order

Filial piety (xiao), one of the most important concepts in Confucianism, is a cornerstone of the Confucian worldview. It dictates that children, especially sons, must honor their parents, elders, and ancestors, with the father serving as the patriarchal figurehead. This concept is not just a moral obligation but a core principle for structuring social order. In Confucian thought, the family functions as the fundamental unit of society, and the moral integrity of the family reflects the moral integrity of the state.

Filial piety extends far beyond the family, as it is used as a model for political governance. In Confucian society, the ruler is seen as the father of the people, and the people, in turn, are expected to show the same obedience and reverence to their rulers as children do to their parents. The ruler’s moral integrity, similar to that of the father, ensures the harmony of the state, and the subjects’ duty is to obey the ruler’s decisions without question. This paternalistic view of governance is where Confucianism intersects with political structures and can be used to justify authoritarian rule.

In this vision, the ideal society is one where everyone understands their place and fulfills their duty without dissent. The hierarchical nature of Confucianism insists that power flows from the top down, with the ruler at the apex, followed by officials, elders, and other authority figures, with the general population subordinated beneath them. For leftists and feminists, this deeply hierarchical model can be seen as a tool for consolidating power in the hands of a small elite, thus preventing social mobility and the redistribution of power to those who are marginalized.

2.2) Loyalty and the Suppression of Dissent

A key aspect of Confucian hierarchy is the emphasis on loyalty, whether to one’s family, community, or government. Loyalty, in this context, means unquestioning submission to authority. It is not merely a personal virtue but a requirement for social harmony. Confucianism, therefore, implicitly discourages dissent and criticism of authority figures. Whether in the family or the state, the hierarchical structure is maintained by enforcing loyalty through social and moral expectations.

This focus on loyalty to authority has direct implications for political governance. In Confucian societies, rulers and their subordinates are seen as part of a morally just and natural order, and any challenge to that order is viewed as a threat to harmony and stability. As a result, individuals who challenge the status quo or resist authority are often seen as morally deficient or even dangerous to society. This cultural norm of loyalty can be weaponized by authoritarian regimes, using Confucian philosophy as a tool to suppress dissent and justify repressive measures.

This aspect of Confucian thought makes it a valuable ideological foundation for autocratic rule. Rulers can justify their power as being in line with cosmic order, presenting their authority as not only legitimate but divinely sanctioned. In this framework, power is not subject to the will of the people, nor is it accountable to them. The Confucian ideal of social harmony requires the unquestioning obedience of all subjects, which can be easily manipulated to maintain authoritarian control.

2.3) Confucianism and Authoritarian Governance: Historical Context

Confucianism’s hierarchical values were deeply embedded in the political structures of East Asia, particularly during the dynastic periods of China, Korea, and Japan. The imperial systems in these countries often adopted Confucian principles to justify and maintain their political power. In China, for example, Confucianism became the state ideology during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), with the emperor seen as the Son of Heaven, a figure of absolute authority who ruled with divine sanction.

The Confucian model of governance was further codified during the Tang and Song dynasties in China and later adopted in other East Asian nations, such as Korea and Japan. The emperor or king ruled not only by secular law but also by moral and cosmic law, as interpreted through Confucian philosophy. The civil service system, in particular, was based on Confucian ideals, with scholars and bureaucrats being selected based on their knowledge of Confucian texts and their ability to uphold the moral order. This created a ruling class of Confucian elites who were responsible for maintaining order and suppressing rebellion, ensuring that the state’s authority remained unchallenged.

In Korea, Confucianism was adopted as the state ideology during the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897), which instituted a Confucian-based social order that reinforced the power of the king and the aristocracy. The class hierarchy, with the king at the top and the peasant class at the bottom, was seen as natural and unchangeable. Similarly, in Japan, Confucianism played a key role in the development of the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868), which used Confucian principles to justify its rule over the samurai and peasant classes. The Confucian ideal of social harmony was presented as a way to ensure political stability, but in practice, it served to consolidate the power of the elite and suppress the rights of the common people.

This historical context underscores the authoritarian potential of Confucian thought. The moral justification of absolute power in Confucianism provided rulers with the ideological tools they needed to maintain control over their subjects. Whether in China, Korea, Japan, or other Confucian-influenced societies, the principles of loyalty, filial piety, and hierarchy served to legitimize and perpetuate authoritarian regimes, often at the expense of the rights and freedoms of the people.

2.4) Confucianism, Social Stratification, and Class Oppression

Another key aspect of Confucianism’s hierarchical structure is its role in reinforcing class distinctions. The Confucian worldview divides society into distinct social classes, with clear distinctions between the roles and duties of each class. The highest class, composed of scholars, government officials, and the elite, is expected to govern with wisdom and moral integrity. The next tier consists of farmers, artisans, and merchants, who are expected to contribute to society through their labor but have limited access to political power or social mobility. At the bottom of the social ladder are slaves and other marginalized groups, who are seen as the least virtuous and are subject to the authority of those above them.

This rigid class system is an intrinsic feature of Confucianism, which values social order and stability over the pursuit of individual freedom or equality. While Confucius himself argued that rulers should be benevolent and just, his philosophy still reinforced the idea that each individual must know their place within the social structure. For feminists and leftists, this emphasis on class hierarchy is a key issue, as it entrenches inequality and restricts the ability of individuals from lower classes to challenge their position in society.

Confucianism’s endorsement of a strict class system has had enduring consequences for social mobility. The focus on loyalty to authority and the moral imperative of maintaining social harmony often meant that challenges to the status quo were suppressed, and class struggles were marginalized. As a result, Confucianism played a crucial role in maintaining the power of the elite while limiting the agency of marginalized and working-class groups. The absence of a mechanism for social change or redistribution of power within Confucian philosophy has made it a tool for the perpetuation of class oppression.

2.5) The Resistance to Change: Confucianism’s Legacy of Stagnation

One of the most significant criticisms of Confucianism from a leftist perspective is its resistance to change. The Confucian ideal of maintaining social harmony through the preservation of tradition often means that change (especially radical or progressive change) is viewed with suspicion or outright hostility. Confucianism places great emphasis on the “way of the ancestors” (dao), a respect for past practices and teachings that are considered timeless and immutable. This reverence for tradition can make Confucian-influenced societies resistant to new ideas, technological advances, or political reforms.

For leftists and progressives, this adherence to tradition can be seen as a barrier to social transformation. Confucianism’s insistence on maintaining the status quo often prevents the development of more egalitarian, democratic, or just political systems. The focus on hierarchy and order, rather than individual rights or social equity, has made it difficult for Confucian societies to embrace progressive movements such as democracy, gender equality, or workers’ rights.

2.6) Conclusion

Confucianism’s deeply ingrained hierarchical structures and its focus on loyalty to authority have had profound implications for the political and social landscapes of East Asia. While Confucianism may be praised for its emphasis on social harmony and moral integrity, its role in perpetuating authoritarianism and class oppression cannot be ignored. The authoritarian nature of Confucianism, with its reverence for hierarchy, submission to authority, and resistance to change, has made it a powerful tool for maintaining the power of elites and suppressing dissent. From a feminist and leftist perspective, Confucianism’s legacy is one of entrenched inequality, social stratification, and political stagnation, all of which stand in direct opposition to the ideals of equality, freedom, and social justice.

Part 3: Confucianism and the Neoconfucian Revival: Its Role in Reinforcing Social Inequality

The historical impact of Confucianism, particularly in East Asia, has not been static. It has evolved, adapted, and been reinterpreted over time, particularly with the rise of neoconfucianism, which arose as a revival and reassertion of Confucian thought during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE) and later became institutionalized throughout China, Korea, and Japan. Neoconfucianism blended traditional Confucian ethics with elements of Taoism and Buddhism, creating a system that was both more metaphysical and more rigid in its view of the world and society. While Confucianism itself laid the foundation for hierarchical order, it was the neoconfucian revival that truly solidified Confucianism as the backbone of political, social, and gendered inequality in East Asia for centuries to come.

This chapter will explore how the neoconfucian resurgence deepened the structures of social stratification and further entrenched patriarchal and authoritarian governance. By examining the development of neoconfucian thought, its institutionalization, and its integration with state power, we can better understand how Confucianism has been used to perpetuate inequality and stifle progressive social reform in the region.

3.1) The Neoconfucian Revival: Synthesis of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism

The rise of neoconfucianism marked a departure from early Confucianism’s more pragmatic approach to social harmony, ethics, and governance. Early Confucianism, as practiced during the Zhou and Han periods, was rooted in moral philosophy and political advice, focusing on the cultivation of virtue and the creation of a just society. By contrast, neoconfucianism introduced a metaphysical dimension to Confucian thought, drawing heavily from Taoism’s emphasis on natural order and from Buddhist ideas of the mind and self-cultivation.

At the heart of neoconfucianism was the idea of li (principle), which was understood as the underlying order of the universe and the moral principles governing human behavior. Neoconfucians believed that li could be discerned through self-cultivation, study of the classics, and the practice of virtue. The qi (vital force) or material world was considered the medium through which li was expressed. This metaphysical framework made Confucianism more rigid, emphasizing that both the natural world and society followed a divine and unchangeable order, which reinforced the view that individuals must accept their designated roles and positions in life.

The neoconfucian synthesis also emphasized the importance of a scholar-official class. It was the scholars, not the rulers, who were seen as the guardians of moral order. The imperial examination system, which became the primary method of selecting government officials in China, was rooted in Confucian texts and principles, thereby ensuring that governance was based on Confucian ideals. While this system was theoretically meritocratic, it in practice became a tool to consolidate power among the elites, further reinforcing the hierarchical structure of society.

For feminists and leftists, the metaphysical aspects of neoconfucianism were particularly problematic, as they entrench the idea of a fixed cosmic and social order that naturalizes inequality. The notion that both the social hierarchy and gender roles are part of an unalterable divine plan stifled any possibility of reform or social progress.

3.2) Neoconfucianism and State Power: The Politics of Legitimacy

The rise of neoconfucianism was inextricably tied to the political and social needs of the ruling elite. In the Song Dynasty, the imperial court found neoconfucianism to be a convenient tool for consolidating power and legitimizing the authority of the emperor. By blending Confucian ethical ideals with a metaphysical and cosmological framework, neoconfucianism offered a moral justification for absolute rule. The emperor was no longer just the secular ruler; he was seen as the “Son of Heaven,” the divine intermediary between heaven and earth, responsible for maintaining the cosmic and social order. His authority was now seen as absolute, justified not only by his ability to rule but by his alignment with the moral and cosmic principles of li.

Neoconfucianism, therefore, provided the intellectual and spiritual basis for the centralization of political power in the hands of the emperor and the scholar-official class. This centralization reinforced the hierarchical order and prevented challenges to the status quo. By positioning the emperor as the moral and cosmic authority, neoconfucianism silenced dissent and ensured that the population remained loyal to the established system. The emphasis on obedience to authority, whether that of the father, the ruler, or the elder scholar, was deeply woven into the social fabric.

This strong connection between Confucian philosophy and state power made neoconfucianism a powerful tool of governance, but it also made it difficult for progressive movements or alternative philosophies to gain traction. By framing the political hierarchy as divinely sanctioned, neoconfucianism stifled the development of democratic or egalitarian ideals. Those who sought to challenge the authority of the emperor or the moral framework of Confucianism were often labeled as threats to the social order and, in many cases, punished or silenced.

3.3) Confucianism and the Reinforcement of Gender Inequality: A Metaphysical Justification

While early Confucianism did impose strict gender roles, it was neoconfucianism that provided a more metaphysical justification for the subjugation of women. Confucianism, at its core, believed in a well-ordered society, and this order was structured around the family unit. In Confucian thought, the family is a reflection of the broader social and political order, with clear roles for men and women, each serving different functions. Men were seen as public figures, responsible for governing and engaging in social affairs, while women’s roles were primarily private, centered on the home and family.

Neoconfucianism further entrenched these gendered roles by linking them to the cosmic and moral order. The role of women in society, particularly within the family, was not simply a social construct but a reflection of the natural order. Women were seen as possessing a lower moral capacity than men, which justified their exclusion from public life, education, and political power. According to neoconfucian thought, women’s primary responsibility was to maintain family harmony, uphold the moral integrity of the household, and bear male heirs. These duties were seen as morally virtuous but also fundamentally limited. Women’s self-cultivation, according to neoconfucian ideals, was to be directed toward domestic responsibilities, and any deviation from this role was considered morally and socially deviant.

The neoconfucian ideal of the “virtuous woman” required women to embody submission, chastity, and familial loyalty. Women were expected to remain obedient to their fathers, husbands, and sons, and their worth was often determined by their ability to serve men. This emphasis on female subordination was not only social but deeply philosophical, as it was seen as aligning with the cosmic and moral order of the universe. For feminists, this metaphysical justification for the oppression of women is particularly disturbing, as it framed gender inequality as a natural and unchangeable truth rather than a product of social and cultural constructions.

3.4) The Long-Term Impact of Neoconfucianism on Social Mobility and Political Reform

The neoconfucian revival had lasting consequences for social mobility and political reform in Confucian societies. While the civil service examination system theoretically offered a meritocratic path to power based on one’s knowledge of Confucian texts, in practice it became a tool for consolidating power among the elite. The system was designed to produce officials who were steeped in Confucian thought, ensuring that governance remained aligned with the values of the ruling class. The education required to pass the exams was expensive and inaccessible to the lower classes, meaning that social mobility was severely limited.

Furthermore, the emphasis on Confucian orthodoxy during the neoconfucian period made it difficult for alternative political philosophies or movements to gain a foothold. The idea of political change or reform, let alone radical change, was viewed with skepticism by neoconfucian scholars, who believed that social harmony could only be achieved by preserving traditional social and political structures. As a result, neoconfucianism became a conservative force, resistant to new ideas and reformist movements. Even during times of great social upheaval or discontent, such as in the late Qing Dynasty in China, neoconfucianism provided a conservative ideological framework that resisted democratic or socialist movements.

For leftists, the neoconfucian institutionalization of power was particularly troubling, as it placed further emphasis on maintaining a rigid, hierarchical society. The philosopher-officials were not merely the intellectual elite; they were also the guardians of social order and the enforcers of a political system that benefited the few at the expense of the many. In this system, the distribution of power and resources remained entrenched, making social and political reform exceedingly difficult.

3.5) Conclusion

The neoconfucian revival, while revitalizing Confucianism as a political and philosophical system, also reinforced many of the social inequalities that Confucianism had originally established. By linking Confucian ethics with metaphysical concepts and state power, neoconfucianism provided a divine justification for absolute authority, patriarchy, and the status quo. It entrenched social hierarchies, suppressed dissent, and institutionalized gendered roles, making it an effective tool for authoritarian governance and social stratification.

For feminists and leftists, the neoconfucian framework represents an ideological barrier to social progress. Its emphasis on loyalty, submission, and the natural order of things stifles the pursuit of equality, freedom, and social justice. The neoconfucian state became a vehicle for the consolidation of elite power and the suppression of any movement that sought to challenge the established hierarchy. The legacy of neoconfucianism, therefore, remains one of political and social inertia, resistant to change and innovation, and deeply aligned with systems of oppression that deny individuals (particularly women and marginalized groups) their fundamental rights and agency.

Part 4: Confucianism’s Global Legacy and Its Continued Impact on Feminism and Leftist Politics

Confucianism’s profound influence on East Asian cultures cannot be understated. Over centuries, it has shaped political systems, familial structures, gender roles, and social hierarchies in ways that continue to reverberate through modern societies. The legacy of Confucianism is not confined to China, Korea, or Japan alone; its ideas have been exported and adapted in various ways across the world. Yet, for feminists and leftists, this legacy remains a deeply problematic one, particularly because of the enduring power structures it supports and the way it perpetuates inequality. This chapter will examine how Confucianism’s historical and contemporary legacy has influenced social structures globally, how its values still shape gender relations, and why it continues to hinder progressive political movements, especially in relation to feminism, gender equality, and the redistribution of power.

4.1) The Enduring Influence of Confucianism in Modern Society

While Confucianism may not be as institutionally dominant as it once was, its core values still influence political and social systems across East Asia and beyond. In countries like China, Korea, and Japan, Confucianism’s emphasis on filial piety, social order, and loyalty to authority is still deeply embedded in the social fabric. For example, in China, the ruling Communist Party has, in recent decades, invoked Confucian ideas to legitimize its authority, promote social harmony, and reinforce loyalty to the state. President Xi Jinping has even emphasized the revival of Confucian teachings, linking them to Chinese nationalism and the legitimacy of his leadership. Similarly, in Japan and South Korea, Confucian values continue to influence cultural attitudes toward family structure, education, and respect for authority.

In the modern political context, Confucianism’s legacy is seen in the persistence of hierarchical and paternalistic governance. Political systems that emphasize respect for authority, whether through monarchy, bureaucracy, or party rule, continue to reflect Confucian ideals. These systems often prioritize stability and order over democratic participation and the redistribution of power. This authoritarian tendency runs counter to the values of leftist politics, which seek to empower the people, redistribute wealth and resources, and dismantle systems of entrenched power.

The persistence of Confucian ideas in these societies presents a significant challenge to feminist and leftist movements. For feminists, the continued emphasis on hierarchical relationships and gender roles rooted in Confucianism perpetuates the subordination of women. For leftists, Confucianism’s emphasis on social harmony and loyalty to authority stands in the way of genuine political reform and the redistribution of power. The deep entwinement of Confucian values with national identity and political legitimacy means that progressive movements must contend with a powerful ideological force that resists change.

4.2) Confucianism’s Role in Gender Relations: The Legacy of Subordination

One of the most enduring aspects of Confucian thought is its impact on gender relations. While Confucianism is often viewed as a moral and ethical philosophy focused on societal order, its gendered assumptions are deeply problematic from a feminist perspective. In Confucian thought, gender roles are rigid and deeply entrenched in the fabric of society, reinforcing women’s subordination in both the family and the public sphere. The emphasis on filial piety and the moral duty of children to obey their parents, particularly their fathers, served to naturalize gendered expectations, where women were expected to be obedient, passive, and subordinate to male authority.

The Confucian ideal woman is one who remains within the private sphere of the family, fulfilling her duties as a wife and mother. Her primary role is to maintain the household, uphold moral integrity, and bear male heirs. This conception of womanhood has had lasting effects on gender relations in Confucian-influenced societies, where women’s access to education, political participation, and economic power has been severely limited. For centuries, women in Confucian cultures were denied opportunities for self-actualization beyond their domestic roles. In many instances, their worth was determined by their ability to fulfill these traditional roles, and deviation from these norms was met with social stigma and harsh punishment.

Even in contemporary society, the lingering effects of Confucian gender norms continue to shape women’s lives. In many East Asian countries, women still face significant barriers to career advancement, political participation, and social mobility. Traditional gender roles persist in the expectations placed on women to manage the home and care for children, while men are often seen as the primary breadwinners and decision-makers. In the workplace, women are frequently subjected to discrimination, while gender-based violence remains a significant issue. Despite recent advancements in women’s rights, these deeply entrenched gender norms continue to hinder progress toward gender equality.

From a feminist perspective, Confucianism’s legacy of gender inequality is one of its most harmful and enduring features. The naturalization of women’s subordination to men, both within the family and society at large, continues to perpetuate systems of patriarchy that limit women’s freedom and agency. Confucian gender norms have led to a social order where women are seen as inferior and secondary, and their opportunities for empowerment are limited by these deeply ingrained beliefs.

4.3) Confucianism and the Resistance to Social Change

Another key aspect of Confucianism’s legacy is its resistance to social change. Confucian thought is deeply rooted in a reverence for tradition, with an emphasis on maintaining social harmony and stability. The Confucian ideal of the Way of the Ancestors (the dao) encourages society to follow established norms and practices, and to avoid disruptive change. This focus on tradition, while beneficial for maintaining order, often comes at the cost of progress and reform.

For feminists and leftists, this emphasis on tradition presents a major obstacle to social change. In societies influenced by Confucianism, the focus on preserving established structures (whether in terms of gender roles, social hierarchy, or political authority) has hindered efforts to push for gender equality, workers’ rights, and democratic governance. Confucianism has historically been a conservative force, resistant to new ideas that challenge the status quo. Whether in the context of gender relations, class mobility, or political reform, Confucianism has often been a barrier to progress.

This resistance to social change is particularly evident in the way Confucian societies have treated issues like gender equality, human rights, and democratic governance. In many Confucian-influenced societies, efforts to challenge traditional gender roles or push for democratic reforms have been met with stiff opposition. The belief that social harmony can only be maintained through a rigid adherence to traditional structures often prevents the implementation of progressive policies that would benefit marginalized groups, including women, workers, and ethnic minorities.

For leftists, Confucianism’s resistance to change is a significant challenge, as it promotes a static social order that maintains the power of the elite and reinforces systems of inequality. The emphasis on loyalty to authority, respect for tradition, and the preservation of hierarchy has historically stifled revolutionary movements and political reforms that challenge the existing power structures.

4.4) Confucianism’s Influence Beyond East Asia: Global Spread and Adaptation

While Confucianism is most closely associated with East Asia, its influence has extended beyond the region, particularly as global dynamics shift and Confucian ideas are adapted in new contexts. In some cases, Confucian values have been embraced by governments seeking to reinforce social order, economic development, and national identity. For example, in countries like Singapore and Taiwan, Confucianism has been used to promote social stability, economic prosperity, and political legitimacy. Confucian-inspired policies, such as those that emphasize education, family values, and respect for authority, are often promoted as a means of fostering societal cohesion.

However, the global spread of Confucianism has not been without its challenges. In many cases, the application of Confucian values in non-Confucian societies has been controversial, particularly in relation to issues of gender equality and individual rights. As feminist and leftist movements gain traction worldwide, the hierarchical and patriarchal elements of Confucianism stand in direct opposition to calls for social justice, gender equality, and the redistribution of power. The values of loyalty, deference to authority, and respect for tradition can often be at odds with the goals of progressive movements, which seek to challenge established power structures and create more egalitarian societies.

As Confucian ideas continue to shape modern political and social systems, it is important to recognize their potential to either support or hinder progressive change. While Confucianism offers valuable insights into the importance of social harmony and moral integrity, its historical association with hierarchy, patriarchy, and authoritarianism makes it a difficult ideology for feminists and leftists to fully embrace.

4.5) Conclusion

Confucianism’s legacy is deeply woven into the fabric of many East Asian societies and has influenced political, social, and gender dynamics for centuries. While it has provided a moral framework for social order and stability, it has also reinforced hierarchical structures, gender inequality, and authoritarian governance. For feminists and leftists, the continued influence of Confucian values represents a significant barrier to progress and reform. The emphasis on social harmony, loyalty to authority, and respect for tradition has stifled efforts to challenge entrenched power structures and has perpetuated systems of inequality.

As Confucianism continues to shape contemporary society, its impact on gender relations, social mobility, and political systems remains significant. The resistance to change embedded within Confucian thought presents a challenge to feminist and leftist movements, which seek to dismantle oppressive hierarchies and promote equality. Understanding Confucianism’s global legacy and its ongoing influence is crucial for anyone working toward a more just, egalitarian, and progressive world.

Part 5: Confucian Staples in Japan, Korea, and China

While Confucianism’s direct influence has varied across East Asia, its core principles have left lasting marks on the cultures, social systems, and political structures of China, Korea, and Japan. Despite differences in their historical applications, these countries have all incorporated Confucian ideas into their social and political life, some more explicitly than others. Below are key Confucian elements that have become staples in the respective societies of Japan, Korea, and China:

5.1) China: The Heart of Confucian Thought

Filial Piety (孝, xiào): Filial piety is perhaps the most deeply ingrained Confucian value in China. Reverence for parents and ancestors is central to family life, and it is seen as an individual’s moral duty to care for aging parents and honor their familial obligations. This concept has shaped China’s multi-generational family structures, where elders maintain significant influence over family decisions.
The Civil Service Examination System: One of Confucianism’s most enduring legacies in China is the imperial civil service examination system, established during the Tang Dynasty and formalized under the Song Dynasty. The exams were designed to select officials based on merit, measured through their knowledge of Confucian texts. While the system has been abolished, the reverence for scholarship and respect for intellectual rigor remain strong in China.
The Concept of the Ruler as “Son of Heaven”: In Confucianism, the ruler is viewed as the intermediary between heaven and earth. This concept became central to Chinese imperial rule, where the emperor’s authority was seen as divinely ordained. The moral integrity of the emperor was paramount for maintaining the harmony of the state, which aligned with Confucian ideals of governance.
Respect for Authority and Social Hierarchy: Confucianism’s emphasis on respect for authority figures, such as parents, elders, teachers, and rulers, has shaped Chinese society, where respect for the hierarchy is integral to interpersonal relationships. This extends to respect for government officials and social superiors.

5.2) Korea: Confucianism as a State Ideology

Neo-Confucianism as the State Ideology: During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897), Confucianism became the official state philosophy, shaping Korea’s political, social, and family structures. Neo-Confucianism in Korea stressed the importance of hierarchy within both the family and society, reinforcing the gendered division of labor and moral duties.
Patrilineal Family Structure: Confucianism emphasized the importance of male descendants in perpetuating the family name and legacy. In Korea, the importance of the male heir, particularly in traditional family structures, was a key Confucian tenet. This emphasis contributed to the persistence of patriarchal family structures in Korean society.
Filial Piety and Ancestor Worship: The practice of honoring ancestors through rituals (jesa) is a central Confucian tradition in Korea. These ceremonies, where descendants show respect and gratitude to their forebears, reinforce the idea of maintaining familial continuity and moral duty. The belief that filial piety was an essential virtue has been crucial in shaping Korea’s societal attitudes.
Education and Meritocracy: Just as Confucianism stressed the importance of education in China, Korea adopted a similar reverence for scholarly achievements. In Korea, education was considered not just a means of personal advancement but a moral duty to society. The seowon (Confucian academies) were institutions that upheld Confucian teachings and helped perpetuate Confucian values, including the role of scholars as moral leaders.

5.3) Japan: Confucianism’s Role in Social Structure and Governance

The Concept of “Giri” (義理) and Loyalty: Though giri (duty) is a more complex concept in Japan, it draws heavily from Confucian ideas of loyalty and moral obligation. In Confucianism, loyalty to authority, family, and the ruler is paramount. In Japan, giri has shaped the samurai ethos, where loyalty to one’s lord, family, and even societal duty are highly regarded.
Filial Piety and Ancestor Veneration: Like in China and Korea, the Japanese have strong Confucian traditions of ancestor veneration and respect for the family structure. The importance of family lineage and the moral duty to honor one’s ancestors can be seen in Japanese family shrines, where rituals to honor the dead are performed regularly, particularly during obon (the festival for deceased ancestors).
Respect for Elders and Hierarchical Social Relations: Confucianism’s emphasis on respecting elders and authority figures is also deeply embedded in Japanese culture. The structure of Japanese society, particularly in the workplace and within the family, remains strongly hierarchical. Seniority often dictates power dynamics and decision-making, and respect for one’s elders is a cornerstone of social etiquette.
The Confucian Influence on the Tokugawa Shogunate: The Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868) in Japan utilized Confucian thought to solidify its control and promote social order. Confucian principles of governance (particularly the ideas that the ruler’s moral virtue must reflect the state’s stability) were incorporated into the shogunate’s ideology. This allowed for the establishment of a rigid class structure, where each person knew their place and adhered to their social role.
The Role of Women: Confucian gender roles, which emphasized the domestic role of women and their subordination within the family, were also deeply influential in Japan. These ideas were reinforced through the samurai code, where the ideal woman was seen as submissive, self-sacrificial, and dedicated to supporting her husband’s role. Though these roles have evolved in modern Japan, Confucian traditions still subtly influence societal expectations of women.

5.4) Confucianism’s Shared Influence Across Borders

While the application of Confucian values has differed in each country, the common threads across China, Korea, and Japan demonstrate the power of Confucian thought in shaping their respective cultures. These core Confucian elements (respect for authority, filial piety, hierarchical family structures, and the prioritization of social order) have been ingrained into the fabric of East Asian societies.

In the modern context, these Confucian principles continue to influence social relationships, governance, and family life, though they are increasingly challenged by contemporary movements advocating for individual rights, gender equality, and democratic reform. Nonetheless, Confucianism’s enduring presence in East Asia remains an important aspect of understanding the region’s cultural and political landscapes. For feminists and leftists, recognizing the pervasive impact of Confucian ideas helps in understanding the roots of many entrenched social inequalities and the ongoing struggles for greater equality and reform.

The task of overcoming Confucianism’s legacy is complex and requires critical engagement with the ways in which these values still shape social norms, gender expectations, and political structures in modern East Asian societies. In confronting the ongoing influence of Confucian thought, there lies an opportunity to challenge the deeply ingrained hierarchies and work toward a more equitable, just world for all people, regardless of gender, class, or social status.

5.5) Cultural Staples in China

The Imperial Civil Service Examination
Originating during the Tang Dynasty and perfected under the Song Dynasty, the civil service examination system was directly influenced by Confucianism. It emphasized the study of Confucian classics and ethical teachings, aiming to select officials based on merit and scholarly knowledge. This system reinforced the importance of education and virtue in governance, but also entrenched the power of the elite.
Ancestor Worship and Family Shrines
Confucianism places great importance on filial piety and ancestor worship, which is central to Chinese cultural traditions. Families maintain ancestral altars or shrines, where rituals are performed to honor deceased ancestors. These rites are deeply connected to the Confucian belief in maintaining the family lineage and fulfilling one’s duty to past generations.
The Chinese Zodiac and Confucian Moral Virtues
The Chinese zodiac, a cultural and astrological system based on twelve animals, is intertwined with Confucian notions of order and balance. While not strictly Confucian, the way the zodiac interacts with familial and societal expectations (especially in relation to personality traits, virtues, and roles within the family) reflects the Confucian influence on social structure.
Tea Culture and Confucian Rituals
Tea ceremonies in China, while also shaped by other philosophical and cultural traditions, have strong Confucian elements, particularly the emphasis on hospitality, respect, and ritual. The act of serving tea is a reflection of politeness and respect for others, which is a key Confucian value. Tea culture in China is also often tied to family gatherings, further promoting Confucian ideals of familial piety.

5.6) Cultural Staples in Korea

The ‘Gat’ (Traditional Korean Hat)
The gat is a traditional Korean hat worn by men, particularly during the Joseon Dynasty, when Confucianism was the state ideology. The gat symbolized a man’s social status, education, and Confucian ideals. The design of the gat was directly influenced by Confucian ideas of respect for authority, with the hat serving as a marker of one’s scholarly and familial standing.
Confucian ‘Jesa’ Rituals (제사)
The jesa ceremony is a Confucian ritual of ancestor worship, observed regularly in Korea. It is a key practice of filial piety where descendants offer food, drink, and prayers to their ancestors. The ritual reflects the Confucian belief in honoring one’s parents and ancestors and maintaining familial harmony.
The Hanbok (Traditional Korean Dress)
The hanbok is Korea’s traditional attire and, although not inherently Confucian, it reflects the influence of Confucianism on gender roles and family dynamics. The attire, with its structured and formal design, embodies the Confucian values of respect, order, and hierarchy. The way the hanbok is worn during important family and societal events emphasizes formality and the reverence for authority and tradition.
Confucian-Influenced Architecture: Hanok (한옥)
The traditional Korean house, hanok, reflects Confucian principles, particularly in its layout and structure. The design of hanok emphasizes harmony with nature and the family’s hierarchical order. The position of rooms within the house often reflects Confucian ideals, where the most important family members (elders) have the most prominent rooms, while younger generations live in spaces closer to the periphery of the home.
The Importance of Education
The traditional emphasis on education in Korea is deeply rooted in Confucian ideals. Confucianism holds that through education, one can improve one’s moral character and social standing. The focus on academic achievement, particularly in the form of rigorous exams such as the suneung (college entrance exam), reflects Confucian values of diligence, respect for authority, and the pursuit of knowledge as a moral endeavor.

5.7) Cultural Staples in Japan

Samurai Code: Bushido (武士道)
The bushido code, while originating in the feudal warrior class of Japan, was heavily influenced by Confucian principles, especially in its stress on loyalty, filial piety, and respect for hierarchy. Confucianism’s emphasis on the relationships between ruler and subject, father and son, and elder and younger were foundational to the bushido code. Loyalty to one’s lord, a fundamental value in bushido, echoes the Confucian virtue of loyalty to authority.
The Giri and Ninjo Concept
The concept of giri (義理) in Japan, which refers to duty, obligation, and moral responsibility, has roots in Confucianism, where loyalty and filial piety are paramount. This moral duty often conflicts with ninjo (人情), or human feelings, creating a tension between personal desires and societal or familial obligations. This duality can be seen in the Japanese social order and in traditional relationships, particularly within the family.
Confucian Influence in the Shogunate System
During the Tokugawa Shogunate, Confucianism played a central role in structuring Japanese governance. Neo-Confucian ideas about morality, governance, and the role of the state were deeply integrated into the political framework, especially regarding loyalty, hierarchy, and moral duty. The state system focused on maintaining order and stability, using Confucian philosophy as a guiding force.
Ancestor Worship and the Butsudan (仏壇)
The butsudan is a Buddhist altar used in Japanese homes for ancestor worship, but it also reflects Confucian values. The ritual of ancestor veneration is tied to filial piety, a central tenet of Confucianism. The rituals surrounding the butsudan reinforce the importance of respecting and honoring the deceased, reflecting the Confucian belief in maintaining strong family bonds through generations.
Formal Rituals and Etiquette
Japan’s strong cultural emphasis on etiquette (especially in formal settings like tea ceremonies, business meetings, and family gatherings) has strong Confucian roots. The meticulous attention to social hierarchy and respect for authority figures, such as elders and superiors, mirrors Confucian teachings. In particular, the behavior around the tea ceremony, including the reverence for seniority, adherence to protocol, and respect for one’s host, is highly influenced by Confucian social norms.
The Role of Women in the Family
While Japan has evolved significantly over the years, the Confucian ideal of women’s role in the family as caregivers and moral pillars of the home remains culturally significant. Even in modern Japan, traditional gender roles in family dynamics are rooted in Confucian thinking, with women often expected to maintain household harmony, care for the elderly, and raise children in the ways of respect for hierarchy and authority.

5.8) Cross-Cultural Confucian Staples

The Emphasis on Education and Merit
Across all three countries, Confucianism’s focus on education as a path to personal and social improvement has left a lasting legacy. In China, Korea, and Japan, academic achievement is highly valued and associated with one’s ability to serve society. The Confucian value of scholarship as a moral virtue continues to be a cornerstone in educational systems, with rigorous exams and high standards for academic success reflecting Confucian ideals of diligence and self-cultivation.
The Respect for Authority and Seniority
The Confucian value of respect for authority figures and the belief in the importance of seniority permeate various aspects of life in East Asia. Whether in the family, the workplace, or social settings, the hierarchical relationship between elder and younger, superior and subordinate, remains deeply ingrained in the cultural fabric of China, Korea, and Japan. This cultural emphasis on hierarchy influences everything from job titles to social interactions, shaping how individuals relate to one another in everyday life.

5.9) Conclusion

These cultural staples (whether in the form of clothing, rituals, social structures, or political systems) demonstrate how Confucianism’s influence has been woven into the very fabric of East Asian cultures. Despite the evolution of these societies and the rise of modern ideologies, Confucian values continue to influence daily life, particularly in terms of family roles, respect for authority, and the moral obligation to fulfill one’s duties. Understanding these cultural artifacts is essential to grasping how Confucian thought has shaped not only the history of these nations but their present-day challenges and the ongoing efforts to reconcile traditional values with modern social movements.

Part 6: Contemporary Issues

Contemporary societies in East Asia, particularly in China, Korea, and Japan, have begun to experience significant social, economic, and cultural shifts that can be directly linked to the long-lasting influence of Confucianism. The damage caused by Confucian values, especially in relation to gender roles, authority structures, and societal expectations, has become increasingly evident in several key areas. These shifts are often tied to the Confucian emphasis on traditional family roles, patriarchal authority, and rigid gender norms. Here are some of the most pressing contemporary examples:

6-1) Plummeting Birth Rates

Confucianism’s strong emphasis on the family (especially the value of continuing the paternal lineage and producing male heirs) has contributed to societal pressures that have shaped reproductive choices across East Asia. While Confucianism has historically promoted large, multigenerational families, today’s East Asian societies are facing alarmingly low birth rates, largely as a result of the changing roles of women and the evolving economic environment.

Japan: Japan’s birth rate has been in steep decline for decades, and it has one of the lowest fertility rates in the world. This is partly because women, who once were expected to marry and raise children, are increasingly choosing education and career over traditional family roles. The Confucian ideal of women as caregivers and household managers clashes with women’s growing desire for independence and professional success. However, the persistent cultural pressure to marry and produce heirs still weighs heavily on many women, contributing to stress and a lack of interest in traditional marriage and family life.
South Korea: South Korea has faced a similar crisis, with a birth rate that is now the lowest in the world. Young people, particularly women, are rejecting the traditional Confucian model that demands their primary role be in the home, and they are instead seeking to build careers, pursue education, and enjoy greater independence. Despite efforts to encourage childbearing through government incentives, the Confucian emphasis on traditional family structures has created an environment in which women feel that family life is incompatible with personal ambitions. The pressure to balance work, family expectations, and gender roles contributes to the reluctance to marry or have children.
China: While China’s one-child policy (1979–2015) is no longer in place, the traditional Confucian value of producing male heirs to carry on the family name remains ingrained in the culture. However, the economic pressures of modern life, along with a rising desire for individual freedom, have led to a significant decline in the country’s birth rate. The preference for sons, exacerbated by the one-child policy, also led to a gender imbalance that continues to have social ramifications, with fewer women available for marriage and an increasing number of men remaining single. This perpetuates an unhealthy demographic imbalance and places further strain on the social structure.

6-2) Gender Disparities and Women Rejecting Traditional Roles

The Confucian ideal of the submissive, domestic woman (responsible for maintaining harmony in the home and fulfilling the family’s needs) has left women in East Asia caught between traditional expectations and modern aspirations. As women increasingly pursue education and career opportunities, they often face pushback from a society that continues to uphold Confucian gender norms.

Korea: Korean women are among the most educated in the world, yet they still face significant gender inequality in the workplace. Despite laws promoting gender equality, women are often expected to balance demanding professional careers with family duties. Many women find that the Confucian emphasis on domesticity and their expected role as mothers and wives in traditional family structures limits their career options and social mobility. As a result, an increasing number of women in South Korea are delaying marriage or opting out of the traditional family model altogether, contributing to the country’s falling birth rate and shrinking workforce.
China: While Chinese women have made significant strides in education and the workforce, traditional Confucian values still linger, especially in rural areas. The role of women in the family as dutiful daughters, wives, and mothers has not entirely disappeared, and many women are still expected to prioritize family over career. The pressures of balancing work and family life, along with the cultural expectation to marry and have children at a young age, lead many women to opt out of marriage and childbirth or to delay both. Urban Chinese women, in particular, are increasingly rejecting traditional Confucian roles, choosing independence over submission to family expectations, despite the cultural pressure to marry and maintain a household.
Japan: Women in Japan are also increasingly rejecting traditional roles. The Confucian idea that women should primarily focus on household responsibilities and caregiving has been increasingly challenged as women pursue careers, education, and personal aspirations. Despite these shifts, the cultural expectation that women will eventually marry and take on the domestic role persists, creating a tension between modern desires and traditional obligations. Japan’s “marriageable” age has risen, with many women postponing marriage or choosing to remain single, further exacerbating the country’s declining birth rate.

6-3) The Rise of Conservatism and the Backlash Against Gender Progress

In many East Asian countries, there is an increasing backlash against the changing roles of women and the erosion of Confucian family structures. Men, especially those raised in societies steeped in Confucian traditions, often find themselves resisting the changing gender dynamics and doubling down on conservative, patriarchal views. These trends are evident in the rise of conservative political movements, male-driven social movements, and backlash against feminism.

South Korea: The rise of conservative male movements, such as the manhwa (anti-feminist) movements in South Korea, represents a strong pushback against the societal changes that have given women more agency. These movements often stem from the perceived threat that gender equality poses to traditional family structures and male authority. Many men in South Korea feel disenfranchised by the evolving gender dynamics, especially as women gain economic independence and more opportunities for leadership roles. Confucian notions of male superiority and the hierarchical family structure are often invoked to resist these changes and to reclaim what some view as a loss of male power in society.
China: In China, the one-child policy (and its preference for male children) has led to a demographic imbalance, with a growing number of unmarried men, particularly in rural areas. This has generated resentment toward women, who are increasingly seen as “difficult” or “incompatible” with traditional expectations of the family. Some men are resisting gender equality initiatives, framing women’s independence as a challenge to traditional Confucian family structures. Male privilege, rooted in Confucian values, continues to be a source of tension as women fight for equal rights and social recognition.
Japan: In Japan, there is a similar trend toward conservative male movements resisting the changing role of women. As women have entered the workforce in greater numbers, some men have grown disillusioned with the erosion of Confucian family ideals, feeling threatened by gender equality and the perceived loss of traditional authority within the household. The increasing frustration among men, especially in light of Japan’s stagnant economy and the difficulties of balancing family and work life, has sparked a political backlash that questions the progress of gender equality and reinforces traditional gender roles.

6-4) The Erosion of the Traditional Family Model

The Confucian family structure, which places immense value on the extended family and the patriarchal head of the household, is increasingly being challenged by modern individualism. Young people in East Asia are less likely to adhere to Confucian norms surrounding marriage, child-rearing, and family responsibilities.

China: The rise of urbanization and modernization has created a stark contrast with Confucian values regarding family life. As millions of Chinese migrate to cities for work, many young people are abandoning the idea of living with or caring for their elderly parents. The pressures of work, the rising cost of living, and changing family structures have led to a decline in filial piety, as young Chinese individuals seek more individualistic, independent lifestyles that defy Confucian ideals.
Korea: The younger generation in Korea, particularly the so-called 5050 generation (those in their 30s and 40s), is also challenging traditional family values. Many young people are opting out of marriage or choosing to remain childless due to the pressures of maintaining a Confucian-inspired family structure that demands personal sacrifice, especially from women. Additionally, the burden of filial piety, traditionally placed on the shoulders of women, has led to increasing resistance to the expectation of caregiving for aging parents, as the younger generation questions the financial and personal cost of adhering to these traditional obligations.
Japan: In Japan, the traditional family model has been eroded by urbanization, economic pressure, and shifting cultural norms. Young people, particularly women, are rejecting the traditional Confucian model of marriage and family. The Confucian expectation that women should marry, bear children, and serve their families has led to a decline in the willingness to marry and bear children, further exacerbating Japan’s demographic crisis.

6-5) Conclusion

The damage caused by Confucianism in contemporary East Asia is multifaceted, touching on issues of gender inequality, demographic crises, political conservatism, and the erosion of traditional family structures. While Confucianism has historically provided a moral framework for social order, its emphasis on patriarchy, rigid gender roles, and deference to authority has led to tensions in the modern world. As women increasingly challenge traditional family roles and assert their independence, and as men resist the erosion of male authority, societies across East Asia are grappling with the consequences of Confucian values that, though once foundational, now seem out of sync with modern aspirations for equality, freedom, and individual autonomy. The evolving struggle to reconcile these traditional values with the demands of contemporary life will continue to shape the future of East Asian societies, as they seek a more inclusive and equitable future while navigating the complex legacies of Confucian thought.

In Closing: The Oppressive Legacy of Confucianism and the Path to a More Just World

Confucianism, as a dominant philosophical and social system, has profoundly shaped the cultures and societies of East Asia for more than two millennia. While its ethical emphasis on social harmony, moral integrity, and respect for authority has contributed to stability and order in certain contexts, the historical and contemporary legacy of Confucianism reveals a much darker side. This thesis has examined how Confucian thought, particularly in its neoconfucian revival, has perpetuated deeply entrenched systems of hierarchy, patriarchy, and authoritarianism. It has also shown how the fundamental principles of Confucianism (its notions of gender, loyalty, hierarchy, and obedience) have been used to justify and reinforce the subjugation of women, the consolidation of political power in the hands of the elite, and the systematic suppression of dissent.

From a feminist and leftist perspective, Confucianism has been an oppressive force, particularly in its role in shaping gender relations and perpetuating social stratification. Confucianism’s rigid division of gender roles, with women relegated to the domestic sphere and subjugated by male authority, has created lasting structures of inequality that continue to affect women’s access to education, political participation, and economic power. The emphasis on the family as a reflection of the broader social order, with a patriarchal head and clearly defined roles for men and women, has led to the naturalization of gender inequality and the subordination of women to male authority figures. The metaphysical justification of these roles through neoconfucian ideas has made such inequality seem not only socially natural but morally right.

Similarly, Confucianism’s focus on hierarchy and loyalty to authority has laid the groundwork for authoritarian governance. The moral and political framework provided by Confucianism, in which loyalty to authority figures (whether the father, the emperor, or the scholar-official) was paramount, has made it difficult for democratic or egalitarian ideas to take root. The Confucian state, with its emphasis on social order and harmony, presents a vision of governance that resists political change and suppresses movements for greater equality and redistribution of power. By framing social and political hierarchies as part of a divine and unchangeable order, Confucianism has acted as a tool of legitimization for autocratic regimes and entrenched power structures. The belief that power and authority come from moral integrity, combined with the expectation that all individuals know their place within this hierarchical system, has stifled the development of democratic systems and more progressive political movements.

As we’ve seen, neoconfucianism, with its intellectual synthesis of Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist elements, did much to solidify the Confucian social order. By tying governance to a metaphysical understanding of the universe, where moral and political authority was granted by cosmic forces, neoconfucianism offered a divine justification for the absolute rule of emperors and scholar-officials. This system of thought not only reinforced the paternalistic and hierarchical nature of Confucian society but also institutionalized gendered roles that placed women in subordinate positions and denied them opportunities for self-actualization outside the domestic sphere.

The persistence of Confucian values in modern East Asian societies underscores the enduring power of this ideological framework. Whether in China, South Korea, Japan, or other Confucian-influenced nations, Confucian values of filial piety, loyalty, and respect for authority continue to shape societal norms, even as these countries undergo rapid modernization. In some cases, governments have used Confucianism as a tool for nationalistic agendas and to legitimize authoritarian rule. Confucian-inspired policies that emphasize respect for authority and social harmony continue to limit political freedoms, restrict social mobility, and perpetuate gender inequality. While these societies have made strides toward gender equality and democratic governance, the Confucian inheritance remains a powerful force that resists meaningful change and reform.

For feminists and leftists, the global legacy of Confucianism presents an ongoing challenge. The deeply ingrained hierarchical structures of Confucian thought (particularly its patriarchal underpinnings) continue to shape the ways in which power is distributed, gendered roles are defined, and social order is maintained. From a feminist perspective, Confucianism’s promotion of women’s subordination to men, both within the family and society, remains a key obstacle to achieving gender equality. For leftists, the Confucian emphasis on loyalty to authority and the preservation of social harmony at all costs acts as a barrier to the redistribution of power and the creation of more egalitarian political systems. The resistance to change embedded in Confucianism’s reverence for tradition and hierarchy presents a significant challenge to those seeking to build a more just, equitable world.

In light of this, the critical examination of Confucianism’s legacy becomes crucial for anyone engaged in progressive political and social movements. The values that Confucianism has instilled in East Asian societies (values of respect for authority, reverence for tradition, and the subordination of women) continue to hinder the achievement of greater political freedom, social equality, and economic justice. While Confucianism’s emphasis on moral integrity and social order offers valuable lessons in ethical governance and personal conduct, its historical entwinement with patriarchal and authoritarian systems makes it an ideology that must be critically interrogated, especially in the pursuit of feminist and leftist objectives.

Moving forward, it is essential that feminist and leftist movements confront the enduring legacy of Confucianism and seek to dismantle the systems of oppression it has created. This involves challenging the hierarchical structures that continue to govern political systems and social relationships, advocating for the empowerment of women and marginalized groups, and promoting the redistribution of power in both the family and society. It also requires a rejection of the idea that political and social systems are natural or divinely ordained, and instead, a recognition that these systems are human-made and can be changed. Feminists and leftists must continue to work toward creating a world that is not constrained by rigid social orders, but one that is based on equality, freedom, and social justice.

Ultimately, the path to a better world is one that involves breaking down the hierarchies and power structures that have been built and sustained by ideologies like Confucianism. It is a path that values individual autonomy and equality, encourages democratic participation, and fosters the dismantling of systems that perpetuate oppression. As we reflect on Confucianism’s impact and its role in shaping the societies of East Asia and beyond, we are reminded that the struggle for equality, justice, and freedom is ongoing, and that the values of respect, harmony, and loyalty must be redefined to align with the principles of social and gender equality that form the foundation of a truly just society. In the face of Confucianism’s enduring influence, we must continue to challenge its legacy and strive for a world where all individuals, regardless of gender, class, or status, are free to thrive and reach their full potential.

Addendum: Confucian Thought in Japanese & Korean Horror

Confucianism’s pervasive influence on East Asian cultures extends far beyond societal norms and governance; it also impacts art, literature, and media, particularly in genres like Japanese horror (J-horror) and Korean horror (K-horror). These horror genres often reflect Confucian themes of familial duty, filial piety, and the tension between personal desire and societal obligation, which are central tenets of Confucian philosophy. In J-horror and K-horror, the eerie, supernatural elements often symbolize the consequences of straying from Confucian norms, particularly in relation to family structure, loyalty, and respect for authority.

1. Family as a Core Source of Horror

In both J-horror and K-horror, family dynamics are often central to the plot, and the disruption of familial harmony is a key theme that echoes Confucian ideals. The traditional Confucian family structure, which places authority in the hands of patriarchs and emphasizes filial piety, is a ripe backdrop for horror. Conflicts or disruptions within this framework often lead to horrifying consequences in these genres.

1.1) J-Horror: The Family and Unresolved Duties

In J-horror, particularly films like Ringu (1998), Ju-On: The Grudge (2002), and Noroi: The Curse (2005), family and unresolved obligations are recurrent themes. These films often feature vengeful spirits or curses that are linked to the failure of family members to honor their duties, particularly towards elders and ancestors. For example, in Ringu, the ghost of Sadako embodies the suffering and anger of a family that fails to protect or resolve unresolved issues within the familial unit. The focus on generational trauma and revenge is deeply rooted in Confucian concepts of maintaining moral integrity and familial obligations.

Sadako’s haunting is a direct result of the family’s inability to maintain harmony and resolve past grievances. In Confucian terms, this failure to honor family responsibility leads to catastrophic consequences, as spirits or ghosts (onryō) seek revenge for their unfulfilled needs. The narrative of vengeance in Ringu mirrors Confucian ideas that failing to adhere to familial duties leads to disharmony, and in this case, the supernatural consequences are the manifestation of this failure.

1.2) K-Horror: The Weight of Family and Guilt

In K-horror, the theme of family responsibility is also critical, often involving the failure to live up to societal and familial expectations. In films like The Wailing (2016) and A Tale of Two Sisters (2003), the familial unit is at the heart of the supernatural turmoil, reflecting the Confucian ideal that the family is both a source of moral support and, if disturbed, a powerful force of vengeance. In The Wailing, the tragedy of familial breakdowns leads to both moral and supernatural decay. The film presents guilt, responsibility, and the inability to maintain family harmony as key forces that drive the horror narrative, mirroring the Confucian notion that familial duty and respect must be upheld at all costs, or else the consequences will be dire.

The Tale of Two Sisters is another prime example. The ghosts that haunt the family are tied to betrayal, loss, and the failure of the family to live up to its Confucian duties. The main characters suffer because of past sins and secrets that have festered within the family unit, illustrating the Confucian principle that a lack of filial piety and respect within the family will inevitably bring misfortune. The result is a chilling exploration of the consequences of neglecting family harmony and moral responsibility.

2. The Supernatural as Moral Retribution

The supernatural elements in both J-horror and K-horror frequently act as retribution for failing to live up to Confucian moral standards. In Confucian thought, the moral order of society is often tied to one’s actions within the family unit, and failure to adhere to one’s duties can cause imbalance in the cosmic order, leading to spiritual consequences.

2.1) J-Horror: Spirits Seeking Justice

In J-horror, spirits or curses are often the product of moral wrongdoing or familial neglect. This ties into the Confucian idea of moral rectitude, where actions that disturb the family’s harmony can lead to spiritual retribution. Ghosts in J-horror are not merely malevolent but are often portrayed as seeking justice for past wrongs; wrongdoings that often stem from familial betrayal, neglect, or failure to uphold Confucian values. These vengeful spirits, like those in Ju-On and Ringu, reflect the notion that breaking the moral and familial codes prescribed by Confucianism leads to a disturbance in the natural and spiritual order, resulting in horrors that must be resolved for balance to be restored.

2.2) K-Horror: The Curse of Unresolved Guilt

K-horror similarly employs supernatural horror to explore the consequences of moral lapses in familial obligations. In films such as The Wailing and Bedevilled (2010), the supernatural entities represent the unresolved guilt and failures of individuals to uphold their familial duties or to live up to Confucian expectations of moral conduct. The supernatural often embodies the fallout from these failures: guilt, revenge, and the unfulfilled desires of those who feel wronged by the living. This mirrors Confucian ideas of moral balance, where failure to adhere to family values and responsibilities results in spiritual dissonance that demands correction.

3. The Role of Filial Piety and Respect for Authority

Filial piety, or the respect and obedience that children owe to their parents and ancestors, is a key Confucian value that plays a central role in many horror narratives. In J-horror and K-horror, these cultural norms are often challenged or violated, which leads to dire consequences for those involved.

3.1) J-Horror: Filial Disrespect and the Consequences

In J-horror, failure to respect and honor one’s parents or elders is often a key theme. In Ju-On: The Grudge, for example, the curse is born from the unresolved rage of a mother and child. The mother’s failure to protect and care for her child is a profound violation of Confucian filial obligations, and the resulting curse is a powerful manifestation of this neglect. This disregard for the family’s moral order results in the supernatural vengefulness of the ghostly entities, symbolizing Confucian warnings that dishonoring the family and its elders leads to suffering.

3.2) K-Horror: The Burden of Filial Duty

In K-horror, the theme of filial piety is similarly explored, with many films focusing on the moral and spiritual consequences of failing to honor one’s parents. In A Tale of Two Sisters, the main characters are haunted by the ghost of their deceased mother, whose death and the resulting family dysfunction reflect the failure to fulfill filial responsibilities. The guilt and supernatural haunting are tied to the neglect of familial harmony, mirroring the Confucian ideal that failure to honor family members can bring misfortune and curse the next generation.

4. The Fear of Disruption to Social Harmony

Confucianism places a significant emphasis on social harmony, and any disruption to the harmony within the family or society is seen as deeply problematic. Both J-horror and K-horror frequently focus on the consequences of this disruption, with supernatural elements acting as a metaphor for the breakdown of social order.

4.1) J-Horror: The Collapse of Family Harmony

In J-horror, social harmony is often disrupted by moral failings, family secrets, or unresolved trauma. The supernatural forces that emerge, such as the vengeful ghosts in The Ring or Ju-On, are the physical manifestation of this breakdown in harmony. The disruption of the familial order leads to a destabilization of both the social and spiritual order, creating a sense of unease and fear that runs through the genre.

4.2) K-Horror: The Breakdown of Social and Moral Order

K-horror also taps into the fear of social and familial disorder. Films like The Wailing and I Saw the Devil (2010) show how a breakdown in moral values or the failure to maintain family and societal harmony can lead to horrific outcomes. The supernatural in these films is often a reflection of the collapse of the moral and social order, with ghosts, spirits, and other forces acting as retribution for the failure to adhere to Confucian norms of duty, loyalty, and respect.

Conclusion: Confucianism as the Heart of Horror

Confucianism’s influence on J-horror and K-horror provides a unique lens through which to understand the genre. These films are not just about fear of the supernatural, but about the consequences of violating the core principles of Confucian ethics: filial piety, loyalty, respect for authority, and family responsibility. The ghosts, spirits, and curses that populate J-horror and K-horror are often symbolic of the imbalance created by breaking these moral codes. In this sense, the supernatural horrors are metaphors for the disruption of social and familial harmony, reflecting Confucian ideals that moral and familial order must be maintained or risk devastating consequences. The horror emerges when Confucian values are violated, resulting in the collapse of the individual, the family, and even society itself.

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